Padmasambhava's Footsteps: Discovering Mustang's Untouched Villages
In the Mustong area, a resident with sunglasses on is visible. Support is being awaited by local people. At TeTang Mud Fortress, inhabitants live within its walls. Buckets are carried by locals to pour water on the stained pagoda. Pots are being washed by members of the community. Inside the temple, a monk rests and engages in casual conversation. Practitioners are served tea by local people at the 14th-century Buddhist temple. For centuries, countless ancestors journeyed between India and Tibet, and the original villages along the Mos Tang region are what link them. Padmasambhava made his way into Tibet through this same area during the 8th century.
Kagbeni, situated on the popular Annapurna Circuit Trekking route and acting as the entrance to Upper Mustang, is a very unique medieval village in the Lower Mustang region. In the 11th century, Atisha Dipankara journeyed from this spot to the ancient kingdom of Guge, while Milarepa likewise made continuous travels through this area. The region contains an early-period statue of Master Lian, the Gahoe Temple, a clay sculpture, and a pagoda along the road to the Zamba County border. Devthen chhorten is the tower gate entering the town, and Kagbeni itself represents one of the gateways on the ancient salt transport route.
To this day, local residents continue to inhabit these historic dwellings. The ancient fortresses lining the early trade routes are still preserved in the village, along with mud-brick houses, dark alleys, and distinctive chortens. Gate of Kagbeni (Glutton) Kagbeni has long served as the gateway for trade routes extending in multiple directions. The four historic trade routes converging at Kagbeni connected Upper Mustang to the north, Dhorpatan to the west, Manang to the east, and the mountains of Nepal to the south.
In the picturesque Tangbei Village, the Tangbetani people are regarded as Nepal's indigenous inhabitants, living in the Balhagoon region of Mustang. They bear resemblance to the Loba, and the area is greatly shaped by Tibetan culture. Kagbeni, on the other hand, maintains its fortress-town identity and a deep cultural heritage. It played a key role during the prosperous 'salt trade' period between Tibet and Nepal.
The residents here speak a unique language called "Serke", which translates to golden language, and they possess their own distinctive clothing and ornaments. During festivals, they sing traditional cultural songs and dance to the melodies. Meanwhile, the village itself has become deserted, as most of its inhabitants have moved to the more comfortable life in Pokhara. The walls, painted in three different colors, give the place a picturesque quality that evokes scenes from the book "Along the Himalayas".
Both hikers and jeep travelers heading to Rongbuk Monastery must pass through Chuksang Village, yet its deep cultural heritage tends to go unnoticed. Most visitors choose to stop here for lunch, and a side trail extends eastward to M uitinath and onward into the Mustang region. The village, though a neglected cultural treasure trove, is where residents are repairing the Buddhist pagoda, but travelers' gazes are instead fixed on the colorful cliff caves in the distance.
While most travelers rush past, few take the time to explore what lies beyond. Not far from the village stand two ancient temples, with one situated just above the check point; both date back to the 11th and 12th centuries. The influence of the ancient Guge Kingdom, which once flourished in the Three Regions of Ali, is also evident here, and the construction of this Buddhist temple is thought to have occurred during the same period.
Near Chuksang Village stands the ancient mud-brick fortress of Tetang. The sculptures and religious practices of this region during the 11th and 12th centuries clearly show a strong Guge influence. Local lore holds that Rinchen Sangpo, the great translator who founded the Guge Kingdom, also traveled to Mushtang to teach, though specific records are hard to find.
Hidden from the main road, the village lies at the heart of the mud fortress, appearing even more primitive than the surrounding settlements. A massive cliff river divides the village in half, and its winding roads often cause people to lose their way. In the narrow alleys, residents leisurely play traditional dice games while chatting about their daily lives. Villagers take breaks, and a child climbs up a wooden ladder. The complexity of the Mud Fortress once showcased its past glory.
The ancient temples of Mud Fortress still stand, yet they are now lifeless, with only a handful of old artifacts and faded murals remaining. Scripture boards that are several hundred years old suggest that Buddhism once prospered in this place. In Mustang, most of the gate ruins are likewise visible, though they have been in decay for a long time, their interiors lost to the passage of time. The people of Jiling Village are reciting age-old prayers toward the far-off sacred mountain. Within the temple compound rises a pagoda, while the snowy peaks loom in the distance.
In the surrounding region, Jiling Village stands out as one of the larger settlements, where spring water flows down from the mountains. The village contains both sizable pagoda relics and a memorable 15th-century temple perched on the mountainside. It is also a popular place for hikers to stay. Chungsicave — the meditation site of Padmasambhava — holds statues and murals depicting him within the cave where he practiced.
Padmasambhava reveals his true form. This cave, a "self-generated" one, sits in a precarious mountain valley with steep cliffs all around. Long before the renowned master Lianchi went to Tubo, many practitioners had already gathered here. It was also on the route of the Hindu deity Shiva when he made his pilgrimage to Mount Kailash. I first came to know of it from an elderly Nyingma practitioner, who told me one day that he intended to retreat in a cave in Mustang.
Ghemi marks the start of Lianshi's demon-slaying. As an important stop on the trekking route, this village struck me as having a few lodges and homes, all encircled by trees and farmland. The nearby cave, which Himalayan locals regard as sacred, was not dug by human hands and is filled with natural marvels.
The village sits beside a river whose water is pure and transparent. At its center stands a stone wall of mani stones, along with a stupa adorned with the characteristic Nepali Buddhist eyes; the stupa's interior features finely painted ceilings. A monastery within the village holds restored wall paintings dating back a century and early clay sculptures, though monks are seldom present there. When the monks are absent, the keys are left in the care of villagers living nearby. Additionally, a wall of mani stones extends 300 meters in length.
The longest Mani wall in the Upper Mustang region, standing 305 meters high, lies outside Ghemi Village. Beyond it, a cluster of large stupas and jagged cliffs blend seamlessly into a striking landscape. Local legend ties the area to Padmasambhava's subjugation of demons: he is said to have buried the demon's intestines there and painted the Mani stones on the wall. As a result, it is a key pilgrimage site for those trekking through Upper Mustang.
Dhakmar Village is nestled against a red cliff, where the surrounding land is stained crimson by the blood of demons, according to legend. The Pagoda in the Wilderness Dhakmar stands in this wild expanse. A route from Ghemi Village leads to Dhakmar Village; however, taking this path means missing a close encounter with the 300-meter-long Mani stone wall, which can only be glimpsed from a distance along the mountainside. From that bend in the mountainside, a red valley stretches across the far view. Local lore attributes this striking redness to demon blood splattered across the cliffs.
Ghar Gompa, also known as Lo Gyaker, holds the distinction of being the oldest monastery in Upper Mustang and the oldest temple in the Mustang region. This Nyingma monastery was founded by the Great Master Padmasambhava in the 8th century, and it is believed to have a close link with the Sangey Monastery in Tibet. In the oasis outside the Ghar temple is Dhakmar Village, which serves as the local pasture, where residents use clay from the area to decorate the prayer walls.
According to legend, during the construction of Sangey Monastery in Tibet, demons repeatedly destroyed the structure until Padmasambhava subdued them. The spot where Ghar Temple now stands, which still contains early murals and Buddha statues, is said to be where the demon's heart was cast away. Local belief holds that this temple had to be erected before Sangye Monastery could be built, which is why many think it is older than Sangye Monastery. The temple is currently undergoing repairs by local people.
Tsarang, a settlement in Upper Mustang, ranks as the second largest there, surpassed only by the capital, Lo Manthang. Once the capital of the Kingdom of Lo, it now hosts the old royal palace, which houses Guanyin statues dating to approximately the 7th century, alongside armor from the royal dynasty era, worship-related bones and utensils, and other ancient relics. From the palace rooftop, a panoramic view of the entire Tsarang unfolds.
Built in the 16th century, the most prominent structure is a monastery displaying a unique three-color exterior wall style of the Sakya sect, with the remains of an ancient stupa lying in front of it. A pagoda stands in the village, while inside the temple a complete set of prayer beads is still preserved, along with scriptures carved on wooden boards that point to the existence of ancient Tibetan scriptures. The surrounding area also contains a rich array of early wall paintings and fine statue art within the Buddhist niches. Kushu is reciting scriptures.
Situated at an elevation of 3,810 meters, Lo Manthang stands as the most well-preserved Tibetan medieval fortress. The town is encircled by deep river gorges, while the settlement itself occupies the center of an expansive plain. Surrounding the town is a wall that reaches roughly 7 meters in height and stretches approximately 750 meters in perimeter, shaped in an L-form overall. At each of its two ends, gates require travelers to descend toward the river valley and then climb back up following a long, sweeping curve.
Founded in 1441 AD, Romantown’s main structures include a white palace, several red temples, and lower residential dwellings. The ancient city today holds roughly 150 houses, sheltering thousands of inhabitants. Life in this capital remains steeped in tradition—cattle and sheep wander back at dusk, and firewood is stacked by every home for winter warmth. Thubchen Gompa Monastery houses the mural of Shakyamuni Buddha.
The monks of Chodey Gompa, a 17th-century Buddhist college in Lo Manthang, live and study at the temple. Its main hall still preserves wall paintings whose distinct style closely corresponds to the architecture of the Amdo region, setting it apart from other temples. In recent years, the temple museum—once open to the public—was repurposed into classrooms due to the epidemic.
The three temples were already in ruins in the 1990s and have been under repair from then until now. Jampa Gompa is situated on the second floor of the early Buddhist temple, as most other parts of the building are damaged. That floor is a hidden Mandala hall, adorned with diverse Mandala sculptures whose every detail shows the artist's masterful strokes. The altar of Jampa Gompa features the Vairocana mural.
The main Buddha statue has been fully restored, reflecting the shift from old to new and restoring the murals' original layout completely. At present, the restoration is close to completion, while the narrative depictions beneath the main Buddha hall have disappeared entirely. The mural restorers drew on the materials of the corridor murals in Xialu Temple for inspiration, scaling them down and rearranging them here.
Scholars regard Lo Manthang Palace as one of the best-preserved medieval castles. This nine-sided, five-storey building, erected around 1400, is currently undergoing restoration and remains closed to the public. The 17th-century Vaishravana Wall Painting is located in Chodey Gompa. As for me, even during the height of the tourist season, I still delight in evening strolls through the narrow alleys of Romantang, where local residents go about their activities at a leisurely pace.
The descendants of Ame Pal, the children of Lo Manthang, governed the Lo dynasty as kings for 25 generations, a reign that ended when Nepal annexed the region in 2008, effectively abolishing the Lo monarchy. Now, most doors are firmly closed, and visitors have retreated to their hotels, using solar-heated water not yet drawn by earlier guests. The shifting interplay of light and shadow is quickly swallowed by the massive city walls, leaving only the pagoda’s faint glow at the center.
In 2016, Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista, the final king of Lo, passed away. He was greatly honored and admired by the people there, and photographs of him with the queen are still displayed in many towns and villages. In the evening, at the gates of Lo Manthang Castle, residents bring their cattle and sheep back into the city and gather near the entrance to chat and relax. Sometimes a flash of red appears, giving the old-fashioned setting a distinctive touch of color.
Before I arrived, I barely knew the name and could not even locate it on the map. Here, the well-preserved medieval castle, which speaks to visitors of the stories from bygone centuries, makes the place feel like a return to early Tibet. In Chhoser, A-Jia leads the calf home, and nearby stands nyphu gompa, a rock-cut temple with a cave complex thousands of years old. Despite Roman Tong having many one-day tour routes, walking from this spot to Roman Tong actually requires more than an hour.
For those who have already walked to Roman Tong, the distance feels like an easy stroll. Remains of early practice caves, filled with early wall paintings, are there. Along the way, we passed traditional villages and ruined, abandoned pagodas. It was only after reaching Chhoser that we realized it wasn't just one cave—there were countless caves surrounding it. Jhong Cave is the most celebrated, but it contains no preserved murals.
The caves, with their winding passages, extend up to five levels. Human remains dating back 1000–2000 years have been discovered in many of them, indicating that burial practices shaped by the Benzhu culture were widespread during that period. Inside the caves, wall paintings of Gautama Buddha and depictions of monastic life date to around the 13th century. Some archaeologists speculate that a tribe may have dwelled here three to four thousand years ago, making the caves their homes—a custom that has continued into the present day.
The history of Mustang reaches much further back than the 15th-century Lho dynasty, extending into a distant past and preserving an extensive collection of historical relics that testify to shifting eras, cultural interactions, and the growth of Buddhism. A cave containing a 13th-century mural of the Eighty-Four Achievers is presently inhabited by local herders. Since the murals lack protection, they have been darkened by smoke from the herders' cooking fires.