Masks of Power: When Humans Become Deities to Banish Evil
At Nechung Monastery, on the edge of Lhasa, a grand Cham ritual dance was evidently in progress, as the picture depicts certain figures clad in skeleton-patterned robes and others wearing masks with skull motifs, appearing to perform a solemn dance in time with gongs, drums, and ritual horns shown above them. This artwork dates back to the late 1850s, more than 150 years ago.
The skeleton-clad characters mentioned above probably executed the "Skeleton Dance (Chitipati)" section of the Cham ritual. At the same time, this illustration captures for future generations the instant when every ritual character had entered and the gathered participants danced as one.
According to historical accounts, the Chitipati were performed by four young monks aged about ten. Wearing skeleton-patterned short robes, skull masks, and Tibetan embroidered boots, they used their terrifying appearance and gestures to express the Buddhist teaching of impermanence. Strikingly, the illustration shows exactly four such skeleton dancers: two clad in bone-decorated garments on the left side of the image, and two wearing skull masks in the lower right section.
Masks known as "Ba" in Tibetan are broadly categorized into three types: Cham (ritual dance) masks, hanging masks, and Tibetan opera masks. In a close-up section of the illustration, Cham dancers are shown wearing robes adorned with skeletal patterns. The Cham dance features many other mask varieties, and it also uses skull and skeleton masks to symbolize the impermanence of life and death.
The Buddhist Cham is thought to have slowly developed from a new form that drew on the Bon tradition of animal-mask dances. The Life of Padmasambhava records an event in which Buddhist monks interrupted a Bon shaman's ritual, and the account states: "...fox-fur hats on their heads, broken drums in their hands... wooden deer heads with antlers, paper-mache yaks and clay-modeled sheep..." Of these, the "wooden deer head with antlers" remains among the most frequently seen Cham masks today. A Cham performer in a deer-head mask, undated.
Across global civilizations, the earliest masks are believed to have been crafted primarily from animal skulls, embellished with feathers and other adornments, serving both hunting purposes—whether to startle prey or to blend in—and ceremonial functions. These masks belong to humanity's primitive cultural heritage, with origins traced back to ancient hunting practices, totem worship, and the veneration of skulls. In the modern period, a Cham dancer can be seen wearing a deer-head mask. Additionally, an ox-head mask is preserved within the Potala Palace in Lhasa, and a Garuda mask also exists.
In Tibet, masks have a long history. The Rubin Collection includes a Begtse protector mask from Mongolia, early 20th century, inlaid with 6,000 pieces of red coral. Also from Mongolia is a 19th-century "Senge" Dharma Protector snow lion mask. From Bhutan, the Bruce Miller Collection has a Hanuman (macaque) mask. The same collection holds a Songtsen Gampo mask from the 18th–19th century. Joseph Rock's 1925 photographs show a Cham performer wearing an ox-head mask and a "Dangjin Qujia" Cham dancer. A 1920 Colored B&W depicts Cham performers wearing masks, while in the modern period, monks of Cham appear with masks removed.
Beyond the Cham masks already discussed, additional varieties exist, including hanging masks and those used in Tibetan opera, each serving distinct purposes and carrying its own aesthetic value. As noted earlier, the evolution of Cham masks went hand in hand with the Cham ritual itself. During religious festivals, many monasteries stage this ceremony with the aim of subduing demons and casting out evil spirits. The performers' masks represent ghosts, immortals, Dharma kings, protector deities, animal totems, and other figures. Acting as a link between the human and divine spheres, these masks play a functional role in religious rites.
Reinforcing the majesty of religious tradition, the emphasis on a solemn atmosphere constitutes a social trait. Hanging masks, which also possess this trait, are frequently mounted on temple walls and pillars for people to worship. A late-1850s detail of a Cham dance scene at Samye Monastery is housed in the British Library.
The subject matter falls into three groupings. First are figures such as Buddhas, bodhisattvas, heavenly kings, arhats, meditational deities, wrathful deities, eminent monks, and their fierce protector forms. Second are ghosts and deities from Tibet's indigenous Bon religion, spirits who converted to Buddhism, attained spiritual power, and came to serve as Buddhist protector deities. Third are deities shaped by outside cultural influences, among them the Old Man of Longevity from Chinese tradition, monks of various ranks, donors, and figures from Indian mythology including devas, arhats, and Brahmins.
In the broadest sense, any mask—regardless of its culture, period, material, or shape—has an indisputable function: it immediately changes the wearer's look and presence, enabling them to become someone else. This applies to the hanging mask of the Dharma Protector Goddess Damchen of Drepung Monastery.
A Tibetan opera performance scene showcases the crafty use of masks: "Thus, one may suddenly embody a deity to banish evil, or effortlessly morph into a clown to bring joy and dispel sorrow." This art form—employing song and dance to act out legendary tales—emerged around the 14th century AD. Its creation is credited by legend to the wandering high monk Thangtong Gyalpo, who staged performances to gather funds for constructing iron-chain bridges.
A 1932 Tibetan opera troupe. A traditional performance typically consists of three sections: the opening 'Wenbadun,' the main performance 'Xiong,' and the concluding blessing ceremony 'Tashi.' The opening uses Wenba masks, which mean fisherman or hunter, and come in white and blue. Reportedly, he made the first Tibetan opera masks from whitened goat leather modeled after his own face, making them likely the earliest Tibetan opera masks.
Blue Wenba masks, which are more common today, are slightly larger and wrapped in blue or black cloth. Their designs integrate eight auspicious patterns across the contours, eyes, eyebrows, nose, and mouth, while the chin area is decorated with musk deer or goat hair. Some blue masks are additionally adorned with multicolored brocade embroidered with sun-moon motifs and the flaming Three Jewels. In contrast, the earlier white Wenba masks had faces that were entirely white or yellow, bordered completely by mountain goat hair, and featured backing extending down to the chest.
Following the Immortal Elder mask comes the blue "Wenba" mask, worn by the depicted Tibetan opera performer. The opening performance "Wenbadun" serves as a ritual to drive out evil spirits and summon deities. At the outset, performers donning blue Wenba masks take the stage to purge the area of ghosts and negative energy. Through the act of putting on these masks, the performers are transformed into symbols of courage and justice.
In Tibetan cultural memory, the blue Wenba masks stand as lasting emblems of warriors. Every grand opera performed across the plateau opens with performers advancing in time with drums and gongs, bearing multicolored arrows to cleanse the stage while offering songs of blessing. Blue "Wenba" mask.