"Wearing divine masks transforms humans into gods who exorcise evils for mankind" — Tibetan Mask Tradition

13 de julio de 2025

The scene of the Cham dance at Nechung Monastery in Lhasa, housed in the British Library, late 1850s.

This illustration dates back over 150 years to the late 1850s. If you observe closely, some figures in the painting wear robes adorned with skeleton patterns, while others don masks painted with skull designs, seemingly performing a solemn dance to the rhythm of gongs, drums, and ritual horns depicted above them.

A detailed section of the illustration, depicting lama musicians performing music for the ritual Cham dance.

It is evident that a grand Cham ritual dance was being held at Nechung Monastery on the outskirts of Lhasa at this time. This illustration preserves for posterity the moment when all the ritual characters had made their entrance and the assembled participants danced together.

Returning to the aforementioned skeleton-clad characters, they likely performed the "Skeleton Dance (Chitipati)" segment of the Cham ritual. Historical records describe: "Four young monks around ten years old portrayed the Chitipati, wearing short robes with skeleton patterns, skull masks, and Tibetan embroidered boots, conveying the Buddhist teaching of impermanence through their fearsome appearance and movements." Remarkably, this illustration captures exactly four such skeleton dancers - two wearing bone-patterned garments on the left side of the image, and two donning skull masks in the lower right section.

A close-up section of the illustration, depicting Cham dancers wearing robes adorned with skeletal patterns.

Ritual robe of Chitipati, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, late 19th to early 20th century.

A detailed section of the illustration showing Cham dancers wearing skull masks.

A Cham dancer wearing a Chitipati (Lord of the Cemetery) skull mask.

Chitipati mask

Masks, known as "Ba" in Tibetan, are broadly categorized into three types: Cham (ritual dance) masks, hanging masks, and Tibetan opera masks. The Cham dance not only employs skull and skeleton masks to symbolize the impermanence of life and death, but also features many other mask varieties.

The Life of Padmasambhava records an incident where Buddhist monks disrupted a Bon shaman's ritual, describing: "...fox-fur hats on their heads, broken drums in their hands... wooden deer heads with antlers, paper-mache yaks and clay-modeled sheep..." This new form, incorporating the Bon tradition of animal-mask dances, is said to have gradually evolved into the Buddhist Cham. Among these, the "wooden deer head with antlers" remains one of the most commonly seen Cham masks to this day.

Deer-head mask, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, late 19th to early 20th century.

A Cham performer wearing a deer-head mask, date unknown.

A Cham dancer wearing a deer-head mask, modern period.

Masks are part of humanity's primitive culture, originally stemming from ancient hunting, totem worship, and skull veneration. It is said that across civilizations worldwide, the most primitive masks were predominantly made from animal skulls, adorned with feathers and other decorations, used for hunting (to startle prey or as camouflage) and ceremonial purposes.

Ox-head mask, housed in the Potala Palace, Lhasa.

Garuda mask.

Begtse protector mask inlaid with 6,000 pieces of red coral (Mongolia), Rubin Collection, early 20th century.

"Senge" Dharma Protector snow lion mask, 19th century (Mongolia).

Hanuman (macaque) mask (Bhutan), Bruce Miller Collection.

Songtsen Gampo mask, Bruce Miller Collection, 18th-19th century.

A Cham performer wearing an ox-head mask, Joseph Rock, 1925.

"Dangjin Qujia" Cham dancer, Joseph Rock, 1925.

Cham performers wearing masks, Colored B&W, 1920.

Monks of Cham with masks removed, modern period.

Masks have a long history in Tibet. In addition to the aforementioned Cham masks, there are other types such as hanging masks and Tibetan opera masks, each with distinct functions and aesthetic significance.

As mentioned earlier, Cham masks evolved alongside the Cham ritual. Many monasteries perform this ceremony during religious festivals to subdue demons and exorcise evil spirits. The masks worn by dancers depict ghosts, immortals, Dharma kings, protector deities, animal totems, and more. These masks bridge the human and divine realms, serving religious rituals. They emphasize a solemn atmosphere, reinforcing the majesty of religious tradition.

Detail of a Cham dance scene at Samye Monastery, housed in the British Library, late 1850s.

Hanging masks also possess this social characteristic and are often placed on temple walls and pillars for people to worship. They depict: first, various Buddhas, bodhisattvas, heavenly kings, arhats, meditational deities, wrathful deities, eminent monks, and their fierce protector manifestations; second, ghosts and deities from Tibet's indigenous Bon religion (these spirits converted to Buddhism, gained spiritual power, and became Buddhist protector deities); third, deities influenced by foreign cultures, such as the Old Man of Longevity from Chinese culture, monks of different statuses, donors, as well as devas, arhats, and Brahmins from Indian mythology.

Hanging mask, Dharma Protector Goddess Damchen of Drepung Monastery.

In the broadest sense, masks—regardless of their cultural origin, era, material, or form—share one undeniable function: to instantly transform the wearer's appearance and aura, allowing them to become another being. This is exemplified in Tibetan opera's ingenious use of masks: "Thus, one may suddenly embody a deity to banish evil, or effortlessly morph into a clown to bring joy and dispel sorrow."

Tibetan opera performance scene

Tibetan opera originated around the 14th century AD. Legend has it that the wandering high monk Thangtong Gyalpo organized performances to raise funds for building iron-chain bridges, creating this theatrical form that uses singing and dancing to portray legendary stories. He reportedly made the first Tibetan opera masks from whitened goat leather modeled after his own face, which were likely the earliest Tibetan opera masks.

A Tibetan opera troupe, 1932.

A traditional Tibetan opera performance typically consists of three parts: the opening "Wenbadun," the main performance "Xiong," and the concluding blessing ceremony "Tashi." The opening features Wenba (meaning fisherman or hunter) masks, which come in white and blue varieties. The early white Wenba masks had white or yellow faces framed entirely with mountain goat hair, with backing extending to the chest. The more commonly seen blue Wenba masks today are slightly larger, covered with blue or black cloth. These masks incorporate eight auspicious patterns in their contours, eyes, eyebrows, nose, and mouth designs, with musk deer or goat hair decorating the chin area. Some blue Wenba masks are adorned with multicolored brocade embroidered with the flaming Three Jewels and sun-moon motifs.

Immortal Elder mask and the following blue "Wenba" mask.

Tibetan opera performer wearing a blue "Wenba" mask.

The opening performance "Wenbadun" contains rituals for exorcising evil spirits and invoking deities. The process begins with performers wearing blue Wenba masks entering the stage to cleanse the space of ghosts and negative energies. By donning these masks, the performers transform into embodiments of courage and justice. They step forth to the rhythm of drums and gongs, holding colorful arrows to purify the performance area while singing blessings. Thus begins each magnificent opera across the Tibetan plateau, with the blue Wenba masks becoming enduring symbols of warriors in the Tibetan consciousness.