Shaman, Guide of the Soul: Masks of the Himalayan Region (Part 2)

"Shaman Masks of Northeast India," 18th century, Rubin Museum

"Masks of the Bhotiya People," 19th century, Rubin Museum

The character is believed to be a talkative macaque.  
Animal figures often serve as intermediaries in local mythology.  
Its ethical alignment cannot be clearly determined as good or evil.

"Village Masks of Bhutan," 19th century, Private Collection

"Primitive Shaman Mask of Nepal," 17th century, Private Collection

The Origin of Primitive Shaman Masks

Shamanism is more like an animistic worldview than a specific religion. We commonly use the term "shamanism" (or shamanistic practices) to describe the belief systems of European cave painters, minority tribes in Asia, and indigenous peoples of the Americas. Around the end of the Ice Age (Pleistocene epoch, approximately 15,000 BCE), reindeer hunters searching for prey brought shamanism from Siberia to the New World (note: this claim is debated). For a long time, it was widely believed that the etymology of the word "shaman" (samān) originated from the Tungusic languages of Siberia (and was considered a native Altaic word).  

Other scholarly perspectives (e.g., Mircea Eliade) suggest that the term may have a more complex background, proposing that Siberian tribes borrowed the word "śramaṇa" (samaṇa—"wandering Buddhist monks") from East or Central Asia (note: this term generally refers to non-Vedic, non-Brahmin religious practitioners). Such linguistic connections might reflect Siberian peoples' observation and respect for South Asian beliefs (primarily Buddhism), with the borrowed term possibly used to grant a special title to their indigenous practices. Similarly, certain elements in Buddhism itself derive from shamanic practices and established rituals, which I will elaborate on later.

"Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy," by Mircea Eliade

The book was first published in France in 1951.  
The Chinese edition was first published in 2018.

"Siberian Female Shaman," late 19th century, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

In shamanic traditions across all regions, we can identify certain consistent characteristics. For instance, the shaman of a tribe is not chosen from among the greatest warriors (who might appear more suitable). Instead, an individual marked by physical or psychological trauma is often considered better suited to become a shaman. Eventually, they must leave the community and live in isolation. In those solitary days and nights, the shaman must begin summoning natural spirits—such as "animal totems" (referring to the spiritual power or symbolic energy of a designated animal)—and use them as sacred vessels for self-healing.  

If this summoning fails, the shaman permanently loses the opportunity (and may even be forgotten or erased from tribal memory). Now, let us imagine a more positive outcome: the shaman, reborn in grotesque and mysterious ways, is permitted to return to the community. Having undergone a "transformative experience," they are often treated differently by the villagers.

"Siberian Shaman," 17th century, drawn by Nicolaes Witsen

The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman  
The painter referred to the shaman as a "priest of demons."

What role do shamans play in their communities? First, they must carefully appease ancestral spirits. These spirits often linger near villages, overseeing adherence to traditions and taboos. Second, since nature is filled with supernatural forces, shamans employ esoteric practices to intervene in the other side of life—the spiritual realm, source of all human suffering (where malevolent spirits must be subdued). Those considered "outsiders" in the mortal world (i.e., shamans) exist more authentically within the spiritual dimension.  

Fertility and navigating "life crises" are central concerns for animists and foundational to all shamanic rituals. "Life crises" encompass stages such as birth, adolescence, marriage, social ascension, and death. When the old "self" dies but the new "self" is not yet born, people rely on shamans to guide them through these critical transitions. As bridges between this life and the next (soul guides), shamans lead the vulnerable across uncertain existential chasms, opening every possible passage toward rebirth.

"Sherpa 'Chief' Mask," 18th century, Rubin Museum

The "Chief" represents ancestors in Sherpa context,  
typically regarded as figures unifying heroic and sage attributes.

"Primitive Shaman Mask of Nepal," 20th century, Stanford University

"Shaman Mask from Eastern Nepal"  
The mask represents a spirit guarding the gate between life and death  
A divine entity feared by malevolent souls

For shamans, to act requires belief. As empowered mediums, they use masks to "become" the spirits they summon, with this possession process often manifesting in ecstatic states. Beyond masks, shamans possess other spiritual tools such as specific ritual garments, weapons, drums, and certain psychoactive substances (e.g., fly agaric and cannabis).

Most shamans serve both as tribal priests traversing different realms and as "professional" practitioners of medicine (note: the unity of shaman and healer). Their knowledge of medicinal substances is used not only to treat physical ailments but also plays a role in certain rituals, such as exorcisms performed using masks. Indigenous herbal knowledge within folk medicine often holds significant importance in the broader medical system. As guardians of ecology, generations of shamans have borne the responsibility of preserving this medical wisdom.

"Siberian Shaman Costume," 19th century, Russian Museum of Ethnography*

"Oriental Medicine: An Illustrated Guide to the Healing Arts of Asia" cover

The book provides an excellent description of Asian folk medicine  
and outlines the development of several major indigenous medical systems in Asia.

Shamanism in the Himalayan region

Numerous early archaeological studies indicate that Central Asian shamanism permeated Bronze Age settlements from Tibet to Ordos, western China, and southern Siberia, primarily spreading via horseback. This region was typically inhabited by two culturally opposed groups: sedentary farmers and aggressive nomadic tribes. Notably, both communities adhered to animism and relied on their respective shamans to mediate spiritual realms.  

The warlike pastoralists (e.g., Scythians, Xiongnu, Mongols) mastered an artistic tradition now termed the "animal style," depicting venerated animal idols—such as steppe tigers leaping onto deer (symbolizing victor and vanquished). Settled tribes often fell prey to cavalry raids, leaving enduring traces of "refuge" mythology and survival practices among their valley-dwelling descendants.

"Steppe Talisman of the Ordos Region," 3rd century BCE

Vicki Shiba Collection*

"Tribal Distribution Map of the Himalayan Region*"

Himalayan scholars widely believe that non-Han ancient Qiang nomadic tribes were the ancestors of modern Tibetans (note: this claim is debated). Centuries before the Christian era, Tibetan ancestors practiced agro-pastoralism in the border regions of eastern Central Asia and northwestern East Asia, likely integrating into—and participating in the spread of—Central Asian shamanic culture.  

Material evidence of prehistoric shamanism persists in Tibet today, as noted by Tibetologist R.A. Stein (1911–1999): stone-circle monuments and tombs around the southern fringe of the Changtang lakes, and metal artifacts (e.g., knives, stirrups, belt buckles) adorned with "animal-style" motifs (also seen in Ordos bronzes and Scythian steppe art) from regions like Derge and Amdo.

"Mask Amulet," 19th century, Russian Museum of Ethnography*

"Primitive Shaman Mask of Nepal," 17th century, Mort Golub Collection*

Certain ethnic minorities in Nepal, believed to have migrated from the central Tibetan Plateau, still preserve archaic linguistic features of the Tibetan language. Some scholars argue that studying Nepal's Magar and Gurung peoples can provide deep insights into pre-Buddhist Tibetan culture. The primitive shaman masks of Nepal bear such striking resemblance to Siberian shaman masks that one must trace their origins back to Neolithic Tibet. Meanwhile, some indigenous tribes in central India (e.g., in Rajasthan) have retained South Asia's native shamanic traditions. Due to geographical proximity, their shaman masks share the closest stylistic affinity with those of the Tarai plains.

Author: Thomas Murray