Translator language
After several revisions and inspections of relevant collections, this article was officially published on the Asian Art website in February 2023. Dr. Pal's research assistant, Ms. Caroline Friedman, agreed to have the article translated into Chinese, with the images in the original article marked with *. It is important to note that the translator will provide appropriate explanations and supplementary information for the images in the original text and use "Such is my view" as the title of the article. Due to the length of the translation, we have decided to publish it in two parts.
Measuring 85cm in height, completed by Newar craftsmen
In the private collection of Roncoroni
Introduction
Mercifully extending a lotus hand
With dripping nectar flowing
To soothe the lonely souls of the departed
Moonlight shining on his glorious face
Gentle gaze revealing compassion
Ratnakīrti (रत्नकीर्ति; Buddhist philosopher)
Note: There are disputes in academia about his dates of birth and death
With two theories of the eleventh century and the seventh century.
When we admire the lyrical and spiritually powerful verses of Ratnakīrti, as well as the visually captivating wooden Buddha statue at the beginning of the text, a question arises in our minds: who is the source of inspiration? The material determines the strong aesthetic appeal of wooden sculptures, as it is difficult for stone or metal works to provide people with such lasting tranquility and warmth. Wood has always been seen as an important medium for presenting art and architecture in the Himalayan region within the borders of the kingdom of Nepal. The earliest records of the kingdom using wood to build palaces and temples are found in Chinese texts from the Tang dynasty. During the reign of King Narendra Dev (645-685) of the Licchavi dynasty (approximately 350-850), the Tang envoy Wang Xuanze personally witnessed the unique wooden architecture of the region.
In Wang Xuanze's description, the walls of the wooden buildings were adorned with exquisite carvings and paintings, and people carved images of gods in wood and worshipped them. In addition, the literature provides artistic details of sculptors in the region tending to inset lesser gems in metal sculptures, a feature that was later imitated and revered by enthusiastic Tibetan craftsmen. To this day, it is difficult to find wooden sculptures created by local artists during the Licchavi dynasty in the Kathmandu Valley, with existing wooden sculptures of the same style permanently preserved in the capital of the Tubo period, Lhasa. These wooden reliefs from the Jokhang Temple, now well known in academia, have fortunately survived the turbulent modern times in Tibet and the cultural upheavals of the last century.
Height 65cm, collection of Oriental Art Museum of Turin, Italy
Height 75cm, Pritzker Private Collection
By Mary Slusser, Published in 2010
Of course, we have now found a third private collection that meets the criteria (Figures 1 and 4 to 6), with the oldest and most attractive piece of art. This statue of Avalokiteshvara, collected by Chino Roncoroni, was initially purchased by Jean Daridan (1906-2002) in 1967. He served as the French Ambassador to India and the French Ambassador to Nepal from 1965 to 1970 and from 1965 to 1967, respectively. In June 2008, Mr. Chino Roncoroni acquired this statue at an auction of Asian art at Christie's in Paris.
Like the two wooden sculptures in the publication, the sculpture collected by Chino Roncoroni also features a Bodhisattva with a general form; however, when compared to several Bodhisattva stone statues preserved in the Kathmandu Valley from the Licchavi period, similarities can be found. Although we cannot immediately identify the protagonist of the sculpture, it is undeniable that Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva is the most popular carving subject. In the following text, I will analyze some unique and thought-provoking image features of the Bodhisattva statue in Figure 1. It is worth noting that only one of the stone statues, located in Gana Bahal (the central area of the city), preserves a complete inscription to aid us in dating the statue.
Height 85cm, completed by Neapolitan craftsmen
Private collection of Roncoroni
Image 5: "Statue of Guanyin Bodhisattva: Left Side", approximately between 430 and 650 AD
Height 85cm, completed by Neapolitan craftsmen
Private collection of Roncoroni, Roncoroni
Image 6: "Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva Statue: Back View", approximately between 430 and 650 AD
Height 85cm, completed by Neapolitan craftsmen
Private collection of Roncoroni, Roncoroni
The three wooden sculptures have all undergone Carbon-14 dating tests. In the first image, the statue of Bodhisattva has a dating range of AD 530 to AD 640 (68.2%) in test A and AD 430 to AD 650 (95.4%) in test B (both results provided by the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich). The second image's dating range is AD 531 to AD 672 (97.5%), while the third image's dating range is AD 550 to 650 (95%). Based on this analysis, the statue in the first image may be even older. As stated below, conclusions from the study of art history also validate the reliability of the data.
Therefore, the tradition of wooden sculptures in Nepal will be pushed back to the sixth century AD. These three wooden sculptures are the earliest existing wooden Buddhist carvings in the South Asian region, possibly used for specific rituals in temples. Apart from Japan, there have been no similar ancient wooden carvings found in the tropical regions of South and Southeast Asia, besides Nepal and Tibet. The climate in Tibet is more suitable for preserving wood than the Kathmandu Valley.
Comparative analysis
The best-preserved of the three Bodhisattva statues is undoubtedly the Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva statue held by Chino Longcoloni. The Bodhisattva's arms are intact, and the unique design of the crown accurately identifies its identity. The right hand of the Bodhisattva extends towards the ground in a gesture of giving, similar to the wooden sculptures of the other two damaged statues. Upon closer inspection from the left and right sides, it is evident that the left arm of Longcoloni's statue is better preserved.
It is worth noting that the left arm of the Bodhisattva statue held by Pritzker is slightly away from the body, and the left hand does not touch the skirt belt like the other two Bodhisattva statues. There is no evidence to suggest that the three Bodhisattva statues also held lotus stems, as seen in the stone statue in Figure 7. It is possible that the left arm of Pritzker's statue should hold a vajra, a similar feature found in the stone statue in Image 8 and a bronze sculpture in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Image 9). The similarities between Longcoloni's statue and Turin's statue are striking, while Pritzker's statue exhibits distinct stylistic differences.
The surface of Pritzker's statue is well-preserved with plaster and paint, showcasing more pronounced physical features and a richer array of ornaments (with a different direction of the skirt belt). Unlike the Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva statue in Image 7, none of the three wooden sculptures have a sacred cord hanging from the left shoulder (upavita), which is common in images of Vajrapani and some examples. The crown of Pritzker's statue conforms to traditional styles, adorned with three oval crown peaks.
It is important to note that when a deity's crown is carved with a lion's face or a glory face (kirtimukha), it is more common in images of Vishnu rather than Buddhist Bodhisattvas. Additionally, the red sash on Pritzker's statue, with tassels clinging close to the hip, is a characteristic feature of images of Vishnu. In the "Supreme Lord Vishnu Stele"（विष्णुविक्रान्त） erected by the ruler Mana Deva（मानदेव；464-505） of the Chalukya dynasty in 467, there are two classic sculptures, with the crown still bearing three peaks despite surface damage.
52cm tall, located in Gana Bahal area of Kathmandu
Photographed by Sameer Tuladhar
Measuring 47.5cm in height, located in the Dhvaka Baha area of Kathmandu
Photographed by Sameer Tuladhar
Height 13.2cm, with clear traces of gilding
Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
The crown of the wooden bodhisattva statue in Turin has only one peak, and the peak gradually becomes slender, a unique variation also seen in the Vajrapani bodhisattva statue kept by the Heeramaneck family and preserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (see figure nine; more pointed than the wooden carving). Although this type of crown has become a standard feature of later Nepalese "mandala images," its earliest appearance may have been on the head of the snake king Kaliya (कालिय; subdued in childhood by the god Krishna). Some images in the Hanuman Dhoka Palace (हनुमानढोका; located in Kathmandu) retain this most dramatic classical theme in South Asian art. The crown of the bodhisattva statue in the Loncoli collection also has three peaks, but the peaks on both sides are triangular, and the inner side of the central peak forms a niche-like structure (similar to the statues in early Indian or Afghan cave temples). During the Gupta dynasty in India, meditating Buddhas were often carved on the crowns of bodhisattva statues (see figure seven), but the crown of the statue in figure one features a rare standing Buddha.
Other examples of early Guanyin statues
Recently (in 2019), a replica statue of Avalokiteshvara hidden by Longkoloni was discovered at the lesser-known Kuleshvar Mahadev Temple in the Kathmandu Valley. Scholars Gautam Vajracharya (1940-) and Ulrich von Schroeder (1943-) have analyzed the statue, with the former dating it to the 6th century and the latter suggesting it was made between the 5th and 6th centuries (without providing a reason). Although the author was unable to visit the site to study the artifact in person, comments can still be made based on photographic evidence (see image ten). Unlike the Avalokiteshvara statue hidden by Longkoloni, the replica statue's right arm is pressed against the torso and the hand appears more roughly sculpted. In contrast to other works of the same period, the replica statue's left hand holds a longer lotus stem.
Confusingly, both wrists of the replica statue lack bracelets, yet both arms have armlets, which is uncommon in other sculptures. However, the most distinctive feature of the replica statue is the complexity of its crown ornamentation, with a single peak reminiscent of figure nine. Apart from this similarity, the intricate patterns in the crown ornamentation of the replica statue are more elaborate than those on the Avalokiteshvara statue hidden by Longkoloni. The figure in the crown of the wooden statue appears to be hidden in a cave, while the figure on the top of the stone statue seems to be standing under a tree (with the tree growing along the left side of the figure). The central sides of the crown of the replica statue are adorned with gems and intricate floral patterns, suggesting the creator was keen on depicting lush scenery. Furthermore, the long flowing hair behind the statue's ears differs from the hairstyle of the wooden statue's main body.
52cm high, photographed by Sameer Tuladhar
It is worth noting that neither of these two Bodhisattvas have standing or sitting Buddha images on their crowns. They stand on a fully bloomed lotus flower, with the lotus stem originating from the body of the Buddha. The image of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara holding a lotus stem in the stone carving is similar to the statue in image seven (unusual), and the statue in image seven (believed to be created in the sixth century by most scholars) also does not have a Buddha standing in its crown.
Another interesting Bodhisattva sculpture is preserved in the Indian Museum in Kolkata, India, this stone statue (image eleven) presents the perfect form that the Nepalese Bodhisattva statues borrowed from (with several variations). Firstly, the stone statue has simple snake-shaped armlets. Secondly, the head of the statue does not have a crown, but instead features a meditating seated Buddha. The Buddha's intricate throne is covered with a blanket, there is a halo behind the Buddha, and the back of the throne is decorated with vines or snake heads. However, the most striking feature is still the practitioner-like hairstyle of the Bodhisattva, with some hair resembling sausage curls and a small amount elegantly falling on the shoulders. In my view, this is the origin of the hairstyle found in the Avalokiteshvara statue held by the Longkolo Temple and the Holy Avalokiteshvara statue in the Potala Palace.
Height 98cm, housed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Dating: Around 475-500 AD
Dimensions: 65cm high
Location: Collection of Rokusho-an Museum
The image above depicts a close-up of Guanyin Bodhisattva.
The Bodhisattva sculpture from Figure Ten was once collected by the Longo-Coloni family, and it has recently been featured in a publication about private collections (2020). The author of the publication has identified the creation date and location of this bronze sculpture as a workshop near the Lumbini Gardens during the Gupta Dynasty. Interestingly, this Bodhisattva presents a stark image of an ascetic (with no courtly adornments or pearl necklaces). Due to the lack of a visible hairstyle from the front, the seated figure appears more three-dimensional and skeletal. The Bodhisattva wears a sacred thread and belt that are typically only possessed by Brahmins, and the folds of the belt cascade in an elegant manner, while the hands do not hold a lotus stalk. The gestures of the Bodhisattva's left and right hands are in the gesture of fearlessness and giving, reminiscent of the stone sculptures from Lumbini that exhibit gracefulness but with stronger plasticity. Although the Bodhisattva does not hold a lotus stalk in his hands, the image of Amitabha Buddha on his head clearly indicates his identity.
Comparing the wooden sculpture collected by Longo-Coloni with the stone statue from image Ten, we can observe a fluidity unique to the early Buddhist portrait tradition. This fluidity is evident in the design and arrangement of the crown, the armlets and bracelets on the stone image, and the use of the lotus stalk, which are variations not found in wooden sculptures. These features are documented in later texts like the "The Garland of Buddhist Practices" (साधनमाला), but with changes in imagery and style that are common, and there is no visual early textual evidence in India or Nepal.
32cm in height, owned by the Solomon family
Image 14: "Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara in Metal"
Late 9th Century AD
Height 23.5cm, Collection of the Worcester Art Museum
It should be noted that no statues of Avalokitesvara wearing a standing Buddha's crown have been found outside of the Indian subcontinent or the Buddhist world. Only from the two sculptures mentioned above (Figure 1 and Figure 10), as well as two other possible bodhisattva statues created by Newari craftsmen from the Licchavi period, can we infer a fact: the crown of Avalokitesvara statues can include a standing Buddha. The other two statues mentioned in the text refer to the sacred Avalokitesvara statue preserved in the Potala Palace and the bronze Avalokitesvara statue housed in the Worcester Art Museum, the latter possibly dating back to the late 9th century.
The Avalokitesvara statue in the Worcester Art Museum is possibly the only Buddhist sculpture with a standing Buddha designed by early Newari craftsmen, with a sacred coil formed by the waistband around the thighs. The sacred cord seen in Figure 13 is not present in the sacred Avalokitesvara statue in the Potala Palace, but it is common in sculptures found in the Lumbini Garden area. Perhaps during the Khasa Malla period, the bodhisattva was associated with Brahmins. Nevertheless, the folds on the Avalokitesvara statue in the Worcester Art Museum display distinct Newari style, while the absence of a lotus stem continues the characteristics of the Avalokitesvara statue in the Longkolo and the Tibetan Avalokitesvara statues.