The Wooden Avalokiteshvara of the Potala: Early Himalayan Sculpture
At the Potala Palace in Tibet stand "Three Statues of Avalokitesvara." The central figure, carved from wood, was transported to Tibet during the 7th century. Flanking it are two metal statues, each crafted as a replica—one commissioned during the 7th Dalai Lama's tenure, the other during the 8th Dalai Lama's, both in the 18th century.
According to the accounts of Buddhist historians, the Padmapani statue in the Potala Palace—also called the Holy Guanyin statue—is described as both a “self-arising image” and the “supreme image of the Dalai Lama.” It is considered the most legendary Bodhisattva sculpture in Tibetan religious history and features the standing Buddha crown discussed in the previous translation. This statue is one of four such “self-arising images,” collectively known as the “Four Self-Arising Sandalwood Statues of Avalokitesvara,” though some maintain that there are five.
At the Potala Palace, the Holy Guanyin statue is wrapped in magnificent robes, so its full form is as hard to see as that of the Jowo Rinpoche statue in the Jokhang Temple. The term "Padma" is the Sanskrit Arya (आर्य), meaning holy or venerable. In 1992, American scholar Ian Alsop thoroughly documented the statue’s painting ceremony, and two years earlier he had already produced a classic analysis of the sculpture.
From the photos taken by Ian, the Holy Guanyin statue in the Potala Palace and the wooden Guanyin statue at Lukhang Lhakhang appear closely related, yet they differ in subtle ways. Apart from their ears, the two sculptures bear no special ornaments on any other part of the body. In both cases, the left hand rests on the waistband, which distinguishes them from the metal Bodhisattva statue in the collection of the Worcester Art Museum, where the hand holds a lotus stem.
Moreover, the design of the standing Buddha crown differs between the two wooden sculptures; the crown on the Holy Guanyin statue at the Potala Palace is set out horizontally, similar to the hairstyle of an ascetic.
In textual writings, scholars have identified the Holy Guanyin statue as a 7th-century work, since it is believed to have been commissioned by the Tubo King Songtsen Gampo. When comparing the two sculptures, a notable difference emerges in the design of their right arms: the right arm of the Holy Guanyin statue at the Potala Palace appears somewhat awkward, a condition attributed to the complex conflicts and later restorations it has undergone, whereas the right arm of the wooden Guanyin statue at Lukhang Lhakhang extends with graceful ease.
The Holy Guanyin statue may have a stylistic origin in the Lukhang Lhakhang Bodhisattva statue, particularly given that both this piece and the Turin Bodhisattva statue predate it, even when scientific data is set aside. Although the sculpture itself has undergone several repaintings, traditional readings of its overall style remain valid.
The Holy Guanyin statue has a more prominent bun than its crown, while the Lukhang Lhakhang Bodhisattva statue features a sturdier crown in comparison; these differences likely reflect artistic preference rather than stylistic divergence. 【Note 1】: Deities in Peacock Dynasty art wore crowns, and it was only during the Gupta Dynasty that crowns became a standard element of deity imagery. In Gandhara and Mathura Buddhist art, Bodhisattvas still wore crowns.
Crowns and the ornate garments linked with them were almost certainly introduced to the Indian subcontinent from West Asia. Starting in the 5th to 6th century AD, these crowns began to appear on Bodhisattva statues and on some Buddha statues as well.
In the late Gupta period of South Asia, a fixed grouping of "one Buddha and two Bodhisattvas" is found, for example in Gandhara and Mathura. One of the Bodhisattvas is likely to be Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, and the Bodhisattva's crown features a seated Buddha in a meditative posture. Two images taken by Ian Alsop in 1992 show the "Buddha Palace Bodhisattva Statue": Image 15-1 from the front, and Image 15-2 from the back.
Neither the existing Sanskrit nor Pali texts contain descriptions of a standing Buddha on the crown. Moreover, the Lotus Sutra, Prajna Paramita Sutra, and Mahaparinirvana Sutra lack any iconographic details of Bodhisattva images. In Tibetan tradition, the Mahaparinirvana Sutra is specifically referred to as a 'heavenly object.' Meanwhile, from the 5th century AD onward, seated Buddha figures became common in Khotan Kingdom metal sculptures; this figure is probably Amitabha Buddha, the spiritual father of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva.
According to Alexander Soper's research, a comparable tale existed as early as 428-431, near the close of the Northern Wei Dynasty. In that account, the population appealed to Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva because of the dynasty's harsh governance. Eventually, the ruler observed an object come down from the sky and land on the ground behind a pillar. Such narratives, reminiscent of the "heavenly object" episode during King Trisong Detsen's rule in Tibet, are actually quite common.
In his studies of East Asian art, Alexander Soper addresses the issue of the "standing Buddha" and cites a passage from the "Visualization of the Buddha of Infinite Life Sutra," as translated by Junjiro Takakusu in 1895. Meanwhile, a possible connection may exist between these two stories in Tibet and the Central Plains. Upon examination, the text turned out to be the Amitabha Sutra, and the ruler, pleased by this, pardoned many death sentences.
Soper noted that the emphasis here is on the special bond between Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva and Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta in this Pure Land, a feature that sets it apart from later writings about the Western Pure Land. He also observed that this sutra contains the earliest iconographic portrayal of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, which differs from the seated or meditative depictions that later became widely recognized.
Here is a direct quotation from Junjiro Takakusu's translation: " That Bodhisattva measures eighty thousand nayutas of kotis of yojanas in height. His body is golden purple, with a flesh bun on his head, a round light around his neck, and his face extends for a hundred thousand kotis of yojanas (...) Standing on his crown is a transformed Buddha, twenty-five yojanas in height.
In the wooden sculptures of the Himalayan region, the creative vision of Newari craftsmen merges seamlessly with the Bodhisattva as described in Buddhist scriptures. Notably, the scripture depicts the Bodhisattva's body as "golden purple", unlike the typical red portrayal. At the Boudhanath Stupa, meanwhile, Bhrikuti is adorned with a golden outer garment.
The Phagpa Watibazangpo, also referred to as "The Statue of Guanyin in Jilong," is currently located in India, although it was previously concealed within the territory of Jilong County. Close-range observation and examination of religious relics present challenges due to ethical considerations and perspective issues in religious art research. Through the analysis of the statues alone, combined with textual study, it can be inferred that this statue was produced earlier than the Potala Palace's Sacred Avalokiteshvara image, while also displaying more secularized characteristics in its sculptural form.
In 1232, Sakya Pandita debated six non-Buddhist opponents before the statue of Avalokiteshvara at the Jokhang Temple and defeated them. The work, titled "The Lineage and Past Lives of the Panchen Lama: Sakya Pandita" (Part), dates to the 18th century and belongs to the Newark Museum's collection.
Currently housed in the Seto Machindranath Temple in Kathmandu, the red Jilong Sheng Guanyin statue on the far left and the white worldly White Guanyin statue on the far right—referred to as Jampa Lhakhang Karpo—are part of the "Self-arising Guanyin Four Images." They appear in the 16th-century "Sakya Prajnaparamita Lineage Chart" (partial) at the Rubin Museum of Art, and the outcome of this debate remains a matter of scholarly dispute.
When the Buddha was teaching in Vaishali, an epidemic struck the townspeople, who then asked him for help. He told them, "Not far from here, to the west, dwells a Buddha named Amitabha, also called Immeasurable Life." Another sutra from early Buddhism relating to Avalokiteshvara—translated into Chinese in 420 CE by the Indian scholar Nandi as the "Invocation to Avalokiteshvara to Eliminate Poisonous Elements Sutra"—was meant as a prayer for the bodhisattva's protection against malignant poisons. That text, however, contains no reference to any visualization practice.
He has two Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta, who constantly show great compassion and mercy to all beings, helping them during times of suffering. Now, you should prostrate your entire body before them, offer incense and flowers, recite their names, and focus your mind for ten breaths. For the benefit of all beings, you ought to pray to these Buddhas and the two Bodhisattvas.
The Buddhist tradition of protective sutras (Pancaraksha; five protections) or dharanis, in which Avalokiteshvara is believed to be an exceptional guardian who rescues people from the eight calamities, is thought to have arisen from such prayers. Those prayers, along with the mantra translated by Nandi, may be connected to a severe epidemic that Amitabha Buddha, also known as Immeasurable Life Buddha, personally faced, or to an actual happening during the Buddha's time in Vaishali.
By the 6th century, devotees in Nepal had encountered Avalokiteshvara's textual portrayals and produced works such as the wooden statue at Longkolo Niwase; that statue in turn had a direct impact on the revered Avalokiteshvara image in Boudhanath. The popularity of this Bodhisattva figure in Kathmandu—apparently confined to the Licchavi era—is attested to by many subsequent copies.
To analyze the Bodhisattva crown adorning a Bodhisattva statue, one must first consider how the concept and imagery of the Bodhisattva have evolved over time. Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, as is widely recognized, has undergone transformations on numerous levels—including a shift in gender within East Asian traditions—yet he continues to hold the position of the most venerated deity after the Buddha. Moreover, because the name Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva incorporates the term "iśvara" (ईश्वर), certain scholars are inclined to draw comparisons between him and Shiva.
Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, known as the "Great Compassion" (महाकारुणिक), is the compassionate observer of the world (avalokita). While the suffix of his title may stem from Shiva, the prefix—meaning "to look around the world"—is more aligned with Vishnu's characteristics. In fact, the Bodhisattva's attributes and functions resemble Vishnu's more than Shiva's. For example, like Vishnu, he is shown with a crown and a lotus flower, one of Vishnu's most significant iconographic traits.
Perhaps to distinguish him from Amitabha Buddha himself, the Bodhisattva's hair is rolled horizontally to the sides rather than upright like a crown, indicating that he is the heart-son of that Buddha. Additionally, he wears a conical high crown similar to Vishnu's "kirita mukuta," symbolizing royalty and supremacy.
Around the 2nd century BCE, the 'Bhagavad Gita' was composed, and it was during that period that 'Vasudeva-Vishnu' gained renown as the supreme deity of the 'Bhagavata-Pancaratra' (ভাগবত - पञ्चरात्र; the main worship of Vishnu's various incarnations). In early Buddhist texts, 'Bhagavan' was likewise a term used to refer to the Buddha.
Early Buddhists adopted the notion of "incarnation" (avatara) from sources such as the "Bhagavad Gita", holding that past Buddhas were reborn as Shakyamuni Buddha, a practice akin to the line of 24 ancestral masters found in Jainism.
The burning lamp Buddha is widely celebrated in Nepal, though it appears only rarely across other parts of the Himalayan range. At the Rubin Museum of Art, one can find "Pishnaka Lying on the Dragon King Ananda," dated to roughly the 10th century AD. The same museum’s collection also holds a partial piece, "The Buddha of the Burning Lamp and the Sacred Area of Kathmandu," from the mid-18th century. Image 16 features a "Gilded Copper Statue of Shakyamuni Buddha," originating from the Nepal region around the 7th century, standing 50.2 cm tall and housed in the Gold Bell Art Museum.
Scholar Gautam Vajracharya (1940-) observes that the narrative of the Buddha's descent from the Thirty-Three Heavens—undertaken thirty-three days after his passing to teach and enlighten his mother—carries particular significance for the Newar community of the Kathmandu Valley. The 18th-century artwork, titled "Twelve Deeds of the Buddha: Returning to the Human Realm from the Thirty-Three Heavens," was amassed by the Bellis family. In this depiction, the celestial journey is accompanied by the Vedic deities Indra and Brahma, who guide the Buddha down from the divine realm, replacing Vishnu and Shiva in this role.
In introducing the metal Buddha sculpture displayed in the Golden Temple Museum, the scholar proposes that the figure (Figure Sixteen) depicts the Buddha's return from heaven (devāvatāra). Notably, a brief inscription reading gaṇḍabimba appears at its base, recalling the title of the Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra. As far as I know, this is the only standing Buddha statue bearing the inscription gaṇḍabimba.
In the art of Thailand’s Lopburi period, the standing Buddha was a frequent motif. Given how rarely this figure appears in other Buddhist art traditions, it is unsurprising that Newar Buddhists link it to the Buddha’s descent from heaven. As for the term gaṇḍa, it may denote either “cheeks” or “grand,” and in this context the inscription could mean “magnificent image.” This sense of grandeur echoes the vast and majestic imagery of bodhisattvas described in the Contemplation of Infinite Life Sūtra.
The wooden statue of Avalokiteshvara hidden in Lunkholoni must be presumed to be the earliest and finest such sculpture in South Asia. Earlier, the Buddha was portrayed either standing or seated on the back of a divine bird, much like Vishnu the savior mounted on Garuda, while the tale of Queen Maya’s dream of the white elephant likewise embodies the idea of “descent from the heaven.”
Like many early religious customs of the Vedic era, the deeds of the Buddha also left their mark on the Newar community in the Kathmandu Valley, even though legend holds that the practice of carving wooden sculptures dates back to the Buddha's own time, when King Udayana of Vatsa fashioned a sandalwood statue of him as he departed for the heavens to teach his mother.
Considered aesthetically, the Avalokiteshvara statue concealed in Lunkholoni unquestionably ranks as an exceptional work and find within South Asian ancient art—or indeed all of Buddhist art—and it served as the inspiration for the Bodhisattva image seen at the Boudhanath Stupa.
When examining the art and culture of different Himalayan communities, whether in Nepal or Tibet, one must keep in mind that Buddhism, despite its origins in northern India, only acquired its distinctive character after absorbing the varied local traditions of these regions, with Tibet being particularly significant. This process of assimilation is powerfully reflected in the veneration of Avalokiteshvara, including his statue, and the crucial role played by the Newar people in this development ought not to be overlooked.
Despite the abundance of myths and writings, only artistic works can swiftly carry spiritual notions to distant lands. The devotion to "Avalokiteshvara" not only captivated artisans from the Newar community but also left its mark on how Tibetans conveyed the majesty of wooden sculpture.
An 18th-century work titled "The Twelve Deeds of the Buddha: The Buddha Returns to the Human Realm" is part of the Beilis family collection. Its detail depicts a wooden Buddha statue offered by King Utpalaka. An excerpt from "Dunhuang Ancient Tibetan Manuscript PT.239" is preserved in the National Library of France. Noting that people remain absorbed in worldly distractions, the author closes with a passage from a Buddhist scripture found in the ancient Dunhuang manuscripts (see PT.239): "If you fear falling into depravity, remember the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who will protect you from the great hell.
The light of compassion pervades the three thousand worlds. Avalokitesvara's grand image may stand either as the main temple deity or as an attendant Bodhisattva alongside the central Amitabha Buddha. Even so, it is one of the earliest South Asian examples, underscoring the significance of "Pure Land worship" in East Asian Buddhist history. "Remember his name and pray to him. Recite his mantra and seek refuge in him, and you will be liberated from that dreadful place.